The Relative Age Effect in the Two Professional Men's Football Leagues in Spain.

The age difference among individuals of the same group is known as Relative Age. Relative Age Effect refers to the consequences derived from it, such as delayed physical, cognitive and mental development of children born later in the year. The aim of this study was to observe the Relative Age Effect by analyzing players' dates of birth throughout three seasons in the two professional football competitions in Spain based on the game positions and the teams' classification at the end of the season. The sample was made up of players (n=4097) from both professional competitions (nLaLiga Santander=1864), and (nLaLiga Smartbank=2233). The data were collected from two public-access football statistics websites. The cut-off date was established on January 1, the year was divided into four quartiles (Q1: January-March, Q2: April-June, Q3: July-September and Q4: October-December). Results confirmed significant differences on dates of births' distribution (p<0.05) for the competitions - LaLiga Santander and LaLiga Smartbank - during three seasons, as well as for player position, with a larger effect observed for goalkeepers and defenders. Significant difference was also observed depending on classification. Results show a clear decreasing percentage of those born in quartile 4 in relation to those born in quartile 1, it can be concluded that the Relative Age Effect phenomenon is present in the Spanish professional football which may lead to an inappropriate talent selection technique in football, with recruitment oriented to the short term, to immediate results, and possibly caused by the early start of the player selection process.

Modelo predictivo de los niveles de estrés y recuperación en nadadores de competición / Predictive model of stress levels and recovery in competitive swimmers

El presente estudio examinó los niveles de resiliencia, el optimismo disposicional y las estrategias de afrontamiento como predictores de los niveles de estrés-recuperación y aspectos correlaciónales asociados. 91 nadadores, con edades comprendidas entre 13 y 29 años (M = 15.73; DT = 2.62), participaron en el estudio cumplimentando la siguiente batería de cuestionarios: la Escala de Resiliencia (RS), la Escala de Orientación hacia la vida-Revisado (LOT-R), el Cuestionario de Estrategias de Afrontamiento en Competición Deportiva (ISCCS) y el Cuestionario de Estrés-Recuperación para Deportistas (RESTQ-Sport). El objetivo principal del estudio fue realizar un modelo predictivo del estrés y de la recuperación en una muestra de nadadores de competición. El modelo de regresión ajustado reveló asociación positiva entre la resiliencia y el optimismo disposicional con la utilización de estrategias orientadas a la tarea. Elevados niveles de resiliencia y optimismo se relacionaron con menores niveles de estrés y mayores de recuperación, siendo el modelo invariante al sexo. Nuestros hallazgos reflejan que la resiliencia, el optimismo disposicional y las estrategias de afrontamiento son características psicológicas que influyen en el estado de forma del deportista.(AU)

Exercise Addiction in Practitioners of Endurance Sports: A Literature Review.

Practice of endurance sports/activities has gained most devotees over recent decades, thanks to its capacity to maintain and improve health. However, their characteristics and accessibility have facilitated the emergence of addictive behaviors. Excessive practicing can lead to adverse physical and psychological effects seriously prejudicial to health, to the extent that individuals are unable to control this behavior. Recognizing that exercise addiction is still a controversial concept, the aim of the present review is to analyze the state of research into addictive exercise behaviors, specifically centering on running and endurance sports. To this end, a search covering article written in English and dated from 2010 onward was carried out in the Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science and EBSCOhost databases. Of a total of 2,675 articles in the four databases, 25 were eligible for the final review. The studies reviewed confirmed that excessive practice could encourage the appearance of addictive behaviors and health problems. Most research has reported no age or sex differences in exercise dependence among endurance sport practitioners; however, obsessive passion and dedication to sports activities may be predictors for addiction to exercise. Owing to terminological confusion and the variety of tools used to measure addiction, figures for prevalence differ widely among studies, with values quoted ranging from 3 to 42%. Furthermore, it is clear that there are problems in delimiting, defining and diagnosing this sort of behavior, which has led to addiction to exercise not yet being considered a behavioral disorder.

Relationship Between Resilience and Coping Strategies in Competitive Sport.

Resilience is important in sport performers to withstand the pressure they experience. This study analyzed the relationship among resilient qualities and coping strategies in 235 Spanish athletes (126 males, 109 females; M age = 20.7 yr) who practiced different sports (79.1% team sports, 20.9% individual sports). They were evaluated at the beginning of the last competitive mesocycle and after an important competition. Coping strategies and level of resilient qualities were measured by the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport and the Resilience Scale. There was no significant difference in resilience scores between evaluations performed during the last mesocycle or competition. A significant increase occurred in the scores for emotion-oriented and distraction-oriented coping during competition. Resilience scores correlated positively to task-oriented coping and negatively to disengagement- and distraction-oriented coping during both periods. Analysis of variance indicated that athletes with high individual resilient qualities reached higher scores in task-oriented coping, using to a lower extent disengagement- and distraction-oriented coping. Results obtained suggest that resilient characteristics may associate in athletes to the use of more potentially adaptative coping strategies.

La resiliencia en el deporte: fundamentos teóricos, instrumentos de evaluación y revisión de la literatura / Resilience in sport: Theoretical foundations, instruments and literature review / Resiliência no esporte: Fundamentos teóricos, instrumentos e revisão da literatura

El constructo de resiliencia, definido como la capacidad de hacer frente y adaptarse, de manera positiva, a las situaciones altamente estresantes, ha sido estudiado desde hace más de 60 años, sin embargo, parece que solo en estas últimas dos décadas ha suscitado un justificado y especial interés por parte de la Psicología del Deporte y del Ejercicio. Es por esto que, cada vez más, crece la demanda por artículos que sean capaces de compilar toda esta novedosa información. Nuestra investigación, por tanto, persigue el objetivo general de revisar los avances entorno a la resiliencia en el contexto deportivo, tratando de ofrecer una visión integradora, actualizada y sintética de la conceptualización del término y de los resultados delas investigaciones realizadas hasta el momento. De manera más específica, también se muestran los instrumentos de evaluación más referenciados y las posibles líneas de investigación a seguir entorno al constructo. Como conclusión, esta revisión subraya los descubrimientos más interesantes sobre la resiliencia y otros factores psicológicos y/o de rendimiento, facilitando la elaboración de estrategias de intervención para la optimización del resultado deportivo y aporta una visión holística del constructo y de sus perspectivas de investigación futuras (AU)

The construct of resilience, defined as the capacity to cope and adapt, in a positive way, to highly stressful situations has been studied for more than 60 years ago. However, it seems that only in the last two decades Psychology of Sport and Exercise has led a justified and special interest on it. That is why the demand for these researches that are able to compile all this new information are growing. Therefore, our paper pursues the general aim of reviewing advances in sport context resilience, trying to offer an integrated, current and synthetic vision of conceptualization and results of researches developed. More specifically, the most referenced assessment instruments and future investigations are also shown. In conclusion, this review highlights the most interesting findings on resilience and its relationship with other psychological and/or performance factors, in order to facilitate the development of intervention strategies to optimize sport performance and provides a holistic view of the construct and its future research outlooks (AU)

O construto de resiliência, definida como a capacidade de enfrentar e adaptar-se de forma positiva as situações altamente estressantes, vem sendo estudada a mais de 60 anos, entretanto, parece que somente nas duas últimas décadas obteve um especial interesse por parte da Psicologia do Esporte y do Exercício. Por conseguinte, aumenta cada vez mais a demanda de artigos capazes de reunir estas novas informações. Portanto, nossa investigação busca o objetivo geral de revisar os avanços realizados em torno àresiliência no contexto esportivo, procurando oferecer uma visão integrada,atualizada e sintetizada dos conceitos da terminologia e dos resultados de investigações realizadas até a atualidade. De forma mais específica, também se mostram os instrumentos de avaliação mais reverenciados e as possíveis linhas de investigação a este respeito. Em conclusão, esta revisão ressalta os resultados mais relevantes sobre resiliência e outros fatores psicológicos e/ou de desempenho para facilitar a elaboração de estratégias de intervenção para aperfeiçoar o desempenho esportivo e aportar uma visão holística do construto e das suas perspectivas de investigações futuras (AU)

Estrés-recuperación en deportistas y su relación con los estados de ánimo y las estrategias de afrontamiento / Stress and recovery in athletes and their relationship to mood state disturbances and coping strategies

El objetivo del estudio es evaluar situaciones relacionadas con el sobreentrenamiento (RESTQ-Sport, Kellmann y Kallus, 2001; González- Boto et al., 2008c) en el contexto deportivo, e identificar su relación temporal con las modificaciones en los estados de ánimo (POMS, McNair y cols., 1971; Balaguer et al. 1993) y la posible influencia en la aparición de desequilibrios entre estrés y recuperación en función del tipo de estrategias de afrontamiento utilizadas (ISCCS, Gaudreau y Blondin, 2002; Molinero et al., 2006, 2008, 2009). Han participado 167 deportistas (62.5% hombres y 36.9% mujeres) entre 18 y 24 años pertenecientes a 11 modalidades deportivas. Los resultados muestran que se producen modificaciones a los largo de las tres tomas realizadas en los niveles de estrés general (p = .027*), conflictospresión (p = .000**), fatiga (p = .000**), bienestar general (p = .022*), burnout-fatiga emocional (p = .009**), forma física-lesiones (p = .000**), burnout- realización personal (p = .000**), autorregulación (p = .000**), Estrés no deportivo (p = .006**), Estrés y recuperación deportiva (p = .001**; p = .000**), Estrés Total (p = .001**) en relación a los índices medidos por el RESTQ Sport. A nivel emocional observamos cambios en los niveles de depresión (p = .040*), cólera, (p = .006**), confusión (p = 036*) y Alteración Emocional Total (p = .041*), y no se producen cambios en el uso de las distintas estrategias de afrontamiento. Es necesario prestar más atención a los cambios temporales durante la recuperación, que pueden inducir adaptaciones positivas tras periodos de sobreentrenamiento, y su relación con los estados de ánimo de los deportistas, que han sido utilizados habitualmente como indicadores de fatiga (González- Boto et al., 2009; Kellmann et al., 2001; Rietjens et al., 2005). Los deportistas utilizan una serie de estrategias de afrontamiento que podrían condicionar de forma diversa el balance entre estrés y recuperación y, por tanto, el posible desencadenamiento de situaciones de sobreentrenamiento (Márquez, 2006; González Boto et al., 2006, 2008a, 2009) (AU)

The aim of this study was to assess situations related to overtraining within the context of sport (RESTQ-Sport, Kellmann and Kallus, 2001; González-Boto et al., 2008c) and identify its temporal relationship with mood state disturbances (POMS, McNair et al., 1971; Balaguer et al., 1993) and its possible influence on the appearance of imbalances between stress and recovery according to the coping strategies used to deal with stress (ISCCS, Gaudreau and Blondin, 2002; Molinero et al., 2006, 2008, 2009). A total of 167 athletes (62.5% men, and 36.9% women) ranging in age from 18 to 28 years old in 11 sport modalities participated in the study. The results showed that modifications took place during the three measurements made of the levels of general stress (p = .027*), conflict/ pressure (p = .000**), fatigue (p = .000**), general wellbeing (p = .022*), burnout/ emotional fatigue (p = .009**), physical fitness/ injuries (p = .000**), burnout/ personal accomplishment (p = .000**), self-regulation (p = .000**), non-sport stress (p = .006**), sport stress (p = .001**), sport recovery (p = .000**), and total stress (p = .001**), which had changed compared with the main indices assessed by the RESTQ Sport. At the emotional level, we observed changes in the levels of depression (p = .040*), anger, (p = .006**), confusion (p = 036*) and total mood disturbance (p = .041*). We did not find any changes in the coping strategies used. According to these results, it is necessary to pay more attention to temporal changes during recovery, because they may lead to positive adaptations after overtraining periods and their relationship to athletes’ mood states, which have usually been used as fatigue indicators (González-Boto et al., 2009; Kellmann et al., 2001; Rietjens et al., 2005). Athletes use a number of coping strategies that may lead in different ways to the balance between stress and recovery and therefore, the possible triggering of overtraining (Márquez, 2006; González Boto et al., 2006, 2008a, 2009). This research project was supported by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (R+D Plan 008-2011) (Spain) (AU)

Análisis de la recuperación-estrés en deportistas y relación con los estados de ánimo: Un estudio descriptivo / Analysis of recovery-stress in athletes and relationship with the mind state: Descriptive study

El objetivo de la presente investigación es establecer los datos basales de la muestra participante en un amplio estudio longitudinal para el estudio de aspectos psicológicos del sobreentrenamiento en el deporte. Han participado un grupo de 141 sujetos de ambos sexos, con un rango de edades de 18 a 24 años (media: 20.8±2.4 años), practicantes de diversas modalidades deportivas a nivel competitivo. Se les aplicó la versión española del Cuestionario de Recuperación-Estrés para Deportistas (RESTQ-Sport) (González-Boto y cols. 2008) para el estudio del estrés y la recuperación y el Perfil de los Estados de Ánimo (POMS) (Balaguer y cols., 1993). Los resultados obtenidos muestran la existencia de estados agudos de estrés en los deportistas, que han sido afrontados de forma satisfactoria, posiblemente debido a la recuperación experimentada y a las bajas cargas de entrenamiento, correspondientes al comienzo de la pre-temporada. Se detectaron unos patrones de correlación entre las puntuaciones en las diversas escalas del RESTQ-Sport y del POMS que reproducen los obtenidos en otros estudios, y corroboran la posible existencia de algún tipo de relación teórica y conceptual entre las emociones, los estados de ánimo y el nivel de recuperación-estrés (AU)

The purpose of the present study is to obtain basal information from a sample of athletes participating in a large longitudinal study on psychological aspects of overtraining, Participants were 141 athletes, of both sexes and a range of age from 18 to 24 years (mean: 20.8±2.4 years),. Subjects answered the Spanish version of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) (Gonzalez-Boto et al. 2008) for the study of stress and recovery, and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) (Balaguer et al., 1993). Results obtained indicate the existence of acute stress states that are adequately coped, probably due to the experimented recovery and the low training loads, corresponding to the beginning of the season. Correlation patterns among the different RESTQ-Sport and POMS scales reproduced those previously obtained in different studies, and confirm the existence of some type of theoretical and conceptual relationship between emotions, mood states and level of stress-recovery (AU)

Physical activity, quality of life and symptoms of depression in community-dwelling and institutionalized older adults.

This study was aimed to investigate in a sample of Spanish elderly whether measures of physical activity are related to health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and symptoms of depression in community dwelling and institutionalized elderly. The sample was a cohort of 436 elderly (234 women and 202 men, aged 60-98 years) from the North of Spain. 58% were community-dwellers and 42% were institutionalized in senior residences. Participants completed measures of physical activity (Yale Physical Activity Survey, YPAS), HRQoL (Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short Form Health Survey, SF-36) and symptoms of depression (Geriatric Depression Scale, GDS). All SF-36 domains, except role-emotional, were significantly correlated with the YPAS activity dimension summary index. Physical function, role-physical, general health and vitality correlated with total time activity, and correlations were observed between weekly energy expenditure and physical function, role physical, vitality and mental health. Depressive symptom scores correlated significantly with the YPAS activity dimension summary index and the weekly energy expenditure. Scores for various domains of the SF-36 and for depressive symptoms significantly differed among less and more active individuals of the same sex and institutionalization category. Differences generally reached a higher extent in institutionalized subjects in comparison to community dwellers. In conclusion, physical activity was related to different domains of both the physical and mental components of HRQoL and to decreased depressive symptoms. Results emphasize the positive effects of physical activity in both community-dwelling and institutionalized older adults.

[Psychometric properties and dimensional structure of the Spanish adaptation of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport]. / Propiedades psicométricas y estructura dimensional de la adaptación española del Cuestionario de Estrategiad de Afrontamiento en Competición Deportiva.

The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate a Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (ISCCS), establishing its psychometric properties and its dimensional structure. Participants were 306 athletes from different sports, aged between 14 and 28 years (45.7% males and 54.3% females), who completed the ISCSS along with other measures of constructs theoretically related to coping. Factor analysis identified eight factors that merged in three high-order dimensions representing task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping and disengagement-oriented coping. The factors showed appropriate reliability (Cronbach alpha and factor correlations), convergent validity (correlations with COPE Inventory scales) and concurrent validity (correlations with CSAI-2 and PANAS scales). It is concluded that the Spanish version of the ISCCS has proved to be a valid and reliable instrument to identify and assess competitive coping strategies, allowing psychological intervention to improve athletes' performance.

Propiedades psicométricas y estructura dimensional de la adaptación española del Cuestionario de Estrategias de Afrontamiento en Competición Deportiva / Psychometric properties and dimensional structure of the Spanish adaptation of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport

El objetivo del estudio fue adaptar y validar un Cuestionario de Estrategias de Afrontamiento en Competición Deportiva (ISCCS), estableciendo sus propiedades psicométricas y su estructura dimensional. Participaron 306 deportistas de distintas modalidades deportivas con un rango de edad de 14 a 28 años (45,7% hombres y 54,3% mujeres) a los que se aplicó el ISCCS junto con otras medidas de constructos teóricamente relacionados con el afrontamiento. Se identificaron mediante análisis factorial ocho factores que se agrupaban en tres dimensiones de segundo orden: afrontamiento centrado en la tarea, afrontamiento centrado en las emociones, y afrontamiento centrado en la distracción, consistentes con la teoría y las investigaciones previas. Los factores presentaron una fiabilidad adecuada (alfa de Cronbach y correlaciones entre factores), así como validez convergente (correlaciones con las escalas del COPE Inventory) y validez concurrente (correlaciones con las escalas de CSAI-2 y PANAS). Se concluye que la versión española del ISCCS es un instrumento válido y fi able para identificar y evaluar las estrategias de afrontamiento utilizadas en situaciones competitivas, posibilitando la intervención psicológica para la mejora de los resultados de los deportistas (AU)

The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate a Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (ISCCS), establishing its psychometric properties and its dimensional structure. Participants were 306 athletes from different sports, aged between 14 and 28 years (45.7% males and 54.3% females), who completed the ISCSS along with other measures of constructs theoretically related to coping. Factor analysis identified eight factors that merged in three high-order dimensions representing task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping and disengagement-oriented coping. The factors showed appropriate reliability (Cronbach alpha and factor correlations), convergent validity (correlations with COPE Inventory scales) and concurrent validity (correlations with CSAI-2 and PANAS scales). It is concluded that the Spanish version of the ISCCS has proved to be a valid and reliable instrument to identify and assess competitive coping strategies, allowing psychological intervention to improve athletes’ performance (AU)

Análisis de los motivos de retirada de la práctica deportiva y su relación con la orientación motivacional en deportistas universitarios / Analysis the reasons for dropout of the sport and the relations with motivational orientations in college students

El objetivo de este estudio es analizar los motivos de retirada de la práctica deportiva y su relación con las orientaciones de metas. Han participado 83 estudiantes universitarios (48hombres y 35 mujeres), con edades comprendidas entre 19 y 26 años, que habían abandonado su práctica deportiva. Para la evaluación de las variables se utilizaron tres cuestionarios, uno ad hoc para variables sociodemográficas, otro para la evaluación de las orientaciones motivacionales y un tercero para la evaluación de las causas de abandono deportivo. Los resultados indican que las principales causas de abandono fueron la dificultad en compaginar su práctica deportiva con los estudios y otras actividades, una disminución progresiva de la motivación y la influencia de los otros significativos; además se encontró una relación positiva entre la orientación al Ego y los factores Baja Forma y Falta de Diversión; y una relación negativa entre la orientación a la Tarea y el factor Bajo Rendimiento (AU)

The aim of this study is to analyze the reasons for dropout of the sport and its relationship with the goal orientations. 83 students participated (48 males and 35 females), aged between19 and 26 years, who had dropout their sports. For the evaluation of the variables used three questionnaires, an ad hoc to socio-demographics variables, other for the assessment of motivational orientations and a third for the evaluation of the causes of dropout sports. The (..) (AU)

Validez concurrente de la versión española del cuestionario de recuperación-estrés para deportistas (REST-SPORT) / Concurrent validity of the spanish version of the recovery-stress questionnaire for athletes (RESTQ-SPORT)

El objeto del presente estudio hasido investigar la validez concurrente de la versión española del Cuestionario de Recuperación-Estrés para Deportistas(RESTQ-Sport), mediante la comparación con el Perfil de los Estados de Ánimo (POMS) y la escala de Ansiedad-Estadodel Inventario de Ansiedad Estado/Rasgo (STAI). Participaron 194 deportistas (53% varones, y 47% mujeres). Las escalasTensión, Depresión, Cólera, Fatiga y Confusión del POMS mostraron correlaciones positivas con las escalas y factores deestrés y correlaciones negativas con las escalas y factores de recuperación del RESTQ-Sport. La escala de Vigor del POMScorrelacionó positivamente con las escalas y factores de recuperación y negativamente con las escalas y factores de estrés delRESTQ-Sport. La ansiedad-estado correlacionó de forma positiva con las escalas de estrés y de forma negativa con lasescalas de recuperación. Los datos obtenidos confirman la validez concurrente de la adaptación española del RESTQ-Sport (AU)

This study investigated the concurrent validity of the Spanish version of the Recovery-StressQuestionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) by comparing it with the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and State-Anxietyscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). A total of 194 athletes (53% males and 47% females) participated in thestudy. The POMS scales Tension, Depression, Anger, Fatigue and Confusion correlated positively with the stress scalesand factors and negatively with the RESTQ-Sport's recovery scales and factors, while the POMS Vigour scale correlatedpositively with the RESTQ-Sport's recovery scales and factors and negatively with the stress scales and factors. Stateanxietycorrelated positively with stress and negatively with the recovery scales and factors. The data obtained confirm theSpanish version of the RESTQ-Sport's concurrent validity (AU)

Motives for participation in physical activity by Brazilian adults.

The present investigation examined the validity and reliability of a questionnaire which assessed motives of Brazilian adults for participation in physical activities, compared motives for participation in walking and fitness programs, and examined differences by sex, age, and education. Participants were 100 men and 138 women, ages 16 to 60 years (M=30.5, SD=11.4). Factor analysis identified four factors which were fairly consistent with previous research. Improvement in physical appearance and enjoyment were rated significantly more important reasons for participants in fitness programs than for walkers. Men were more motivated by social experience than women. Young adults rated importance lower in health and fitness and rated enjoyment, social experience, and improvement in appearance of higher importance. Health and fitness were considered more important by participants with more education. These results are consistent with previous research on the factors underlying motives for regular exercise and support the importance of considering differences associated with culture.

Development of a Spanish version of the Participation Motivation Inventory for young competitive swimmers.

The present study examined the validity of a Spanish version of the Participation Motivation Inventory, modified for swimming by Gould, Feltz, and Weiss in 1985, and investigated whether young swimmers differing in sex and age vary in their objectives for participation. Swimmers (204 boys and 224 girls, ranging in age from 8 to 22 years) were administered the inventory. Factor analysis with varimax rotation identified seven factors fairly consistent with previous research. Differences were found across age and sex. Females placed greater emphasis than males on Friendship and Fun and indicated lower importance rating to Status. Younger children (8-10 years) rated Fun/Friendship, Competition/Skills, Significant Others, and Status significantly higher in importance than did the other age groups.